Thermal Safety, Cooling Technologies, and Predictive Control for Electro-Thermal Management and Intelligent Battery Management Systems in Electric Vehicles

Authors

  • Sai Balaji Kamana Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sasi Institute of Technology and Engineering, Tadepalligudem, Andhra Pradesh. Email:saibalajikamana11@gmail.com , Project Intern, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR)- Common Research and Technology Development Hub (CRTDH), National Institute of Technology Andhra Pradesh, Tadepalligudem - 534 101, India. , National Institute of Technology Andhra Pradesh image/svg+xml Author
  • Kenneth E. Okedu School of Information Technology and Engineering, Melbourne Institute of Technology, 3000, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Email: kokedu@academic.mit.edu.au Author
  • Bhanu Pratap Soni Assistant Professor, School of Electrical \& Electronics Engineering, Fiji National University, Derrick Campus, Fiji Islands. Email: bhanu.soni@fnu.ac.fj , Fiji National University image/svg+xml Author
  • Hari Charan Nannam Visvesvaraya Post-Doctoral Fellow, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Andhra Pradesh, Tadepalligudem - 534 101, India. Email: haricharan.nannam@nitandhra.ac.in , National Institute of Technology Andhra Pradesh image/svg+xml Author
  • Chalapaka Veerendra Bharghav Kumar Project Associate, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR)- Common Research and Technology Development Hub (CRTDH), National Institute of Technology Andhra Pradesh, Tadepalligudem - 534 101, India. Email: bharghavkumar.ch@gmail.com , PhD Scholar, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, National Institute of Technology Andhra Pradesh, Tadepalligudem - 534 101, India. Email: PF062601@student.nitandhra.ac.in Author

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.71426/jmt.v3.i1.pp406-419

Keywords:

Electric Vehicles (EVs), Lithium-Ion batteries, Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS), Thermal runaway, Battery Management System (BMS)

Abstract

The rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs) has increased the demand for high-performance lithium-ion battery systems that provide high energy density, long service life, fast charging capability, and reliable operational safety. Among the major challenges affecting EV batteries, thermal management plays a critical role in determining battery performance, efficiency, durability, and safety. Excessive temperatures, non-uniform thermal distribution, and thermal runaway events can accelerate battery degradation and reduce system reliability. Consequently, effective battery thermal management systems (BTMS) and intelligent battery management systems (BMS) have become essential components of modern electric mobility. This paper reviews the thermal behavior and safety challenges of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles, focusing on major battery chemistries including Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC), Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP), Nickel Cobalt Aluminum (NCA), and emerging solid-state batteries. Heat generation mechanisms, thermal runaway propagation, and battery safety concerns are examined, while commonly used cooling technologies such as air cooling, liquid cooling, phase change materials, heat pipes, and hybrid thermal management systems are compared. Recent advances in thermal sensing, fault diagnosis, and intelligent battery management strategies are also highlighted. In addition, the thermal challenges associated with fast charging and their impact on battery aging and safety are discussed. Finally, current research gaps and future directions involving predictive control, data-driven diagnostics, and next-generation thermal management solutions are identified. The findings indicate that the integration of advanced thermal management technologies and intelligent battery monitoring strategies is essential for achieving safer, more reliable, and longer-lasting electric vehicle battery systems.

References

[1] Rao PVLN, V. Lavanya, D. Manasa, Boggavarapu S, Soni BP. Battery Models and Estimation Techniques for Energy Storage Systems in Residential Buildings. Journal of Modern Technology. 2024;1(1):47-58. Available from: https://doi.org/10.71426/jmt.v1.i1.pp47-58

[2] C L S, J N CS. Advances in Nano Metal Oxides and Nanotechnology for Lithium-Ion Batteries in EV: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Modern Technology. 2025;2(01):254-263. Available from: https://doi.org/10.71426/jmt.v2.i1.pp254-263

[3] Barré A, Deguilhem B, Grolleau S, Gérard M, Suard F, Riu D. A review on lithium-ion battery ageing mechanisms and estimations for automotive applications. Journal of Power Sources. 2013;241:680-689. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.05.040

[4] Plett GL. Battery Management Systems. Volume I: Battery Modeling. Norwood (MA): Artech House; 2015. Available from: https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Battery_Management_Systems_Volume_I_Batt/suLRCgAAQBAJ

[5] Plett GL. Battery Management Systems. Volume II: Equivalent-Circuit Methods. Norwood (MA): Artech House; 2015. Available from: https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Battery_Management_Systems_Volume_II_Equ/1kSPCwAAQBAJ

[6] Plett GL. Battery Management Systems. Volume III: State Estimation. Norwood (MA): Artech House; 2015. Available from: https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Battery_Management_Systems_Volume_III_Ph/3-n3EAAAQBAJ

[7] Ramadass P, Haran B, White R, Popov BN. Capacity fade of Sony 18650 cells cycled at elevated temperatures. Journal of Power Sources. 2002;112(2):606-613. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00474-3

[8] Dubarry M, Liaw BY. Identify capacity fading mechanism in a commercial LiFePO4 cell. Journal of Power Sources. 2009;194(1):541-549. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.05.036

[9] Feng X, Ouyang M, He X, Lu L, Wang H, Zhang M. Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium-ion battery for electric vehicles. Energy Storage Materials. 2018;10:246-267. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2017.05.013

[10] Lisbona D, Snee T. A review of hazards associated with primary lithium and lithium-ion batteries. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2011;89(6):434-442. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2011.06.022

[11] Balakrishnan PG, Ramesh R, Prem Kumar T. Safety mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 2006;155(2):401-414. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.12.002

[12] Kim J, Oh J, Lee H. Review on battery thermal management system for electric vehicles. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2019;149:192-212. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.12.020

[13] Pesaran AA. Battery thermal models for hybrid vehicle simulations. Journal of Power Sources. 2002;110(2):377-382. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00200-8

[14] Smith K, Wang CY. Power and thermal characterization of a lithium-ion battery pack for hybrid-electric vehicles. Journal of Power Sources. 2006;160(1):662-673. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.01.038

[15] Forgez C, Do DV, Friedrich G, Morcrette M, Delacourt C. Thermal modeling of a cylindrical LiFePO4 battery. Journal of Power Sources. 2010;195(9):2961-2968. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.10.105

[16] Waldmann T, Hogg BI, Wohlfahrt-Mehrens M. Li plating as unwanted side reaction in commercial lithium-ion cells. Journal of Power Sources. 2018;384:107-124. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.02.063

[17] Berecibar M, Gandiaga I, Villarreal I, Omar N, Van Mierlo J, Van den Bossche P. Critical review of state of health estimation methods of Li-ion batteries for real applications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2016;56:572-587. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.042

[18] Xing Y, He W, Pecht M, Tsui KL. State of charge estimation of lithium-ion batteries using the open-circuit voltage at various ambient temperatures. Applied Energy. 2014;113:106-115. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.07.008

[19] Waag W, Käbitz S, Sauer DU. Experimental investigation of the lithium-ion battery impedance characteristic at various conditions and aging states and its influence on the application. Applied Energy. 2013;102:885-897. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.09.030

[20] He H, Xiong R, Guo H, Li S. Comparison study on the battery models used for the energy management of batteries in electric vehicles. Energy Conversion and Management. 2012;64:113-21. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2012.04.014

[21] Hannan MA, Lipu MSH, Hussain A, Mohamed A. A review of lithium-ion battery state of charge estimation and management system in electric vehicle applications: Challenges and recommendations. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2017;69:771-789. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.001

[22] Hu X, Li S, Peng H. A comparative study of equivalent circuit models for Li-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 2012;198:359-367. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.10.013

[23] Xiong R, He H, Sun F, Zhao K. Evaluation on State of Charge Estimation of Batteries With Adaptive Extended Kalman Filter by Experiment Approach. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology. 2012;62(1):108-117. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2012.2222684

[24] Renold AP, Kathayat NS. Comprehensive Review of Machine Learning, Deep Learning, and Digital Twin Data-Driven Approaches in Battery Health Prediction of Electric Vehicles. IEEE Access. 2024;12:43984-99. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3380452

[25] Ren L, Zhao L, Hong S, Zhao S, Wang H, Zhang L. Remaining Useful Life Prediction for Lithium-Ion Battery: A Deep Learning Approach. IEEE Access. 2018;6:50587-50598. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2858856

[26] Lu L, Han X, Li J, Hua J, Ouyang M. A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles. Journal of Power Sources. 2013;226:272-288. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.10.060

[27] Jaguemont J, Boulon L, Dubé Y. A comprehensive review of lithium-ion batteries used in hybrid and electric vehicles at cold temperatures. Applied Energy. 2016;164:99-114. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.11.034

[28] Petzl M, Danzer MA. Nondestructive detection, characterization, and quantification of lithium plating in commercial lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 2014;254:80-87. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.12.060

[29] Santhanagopalan S, Guo Q, Ramadass P, White RE. Review of models for predicting the cycling performance of lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 2006;156(2):620-628. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.05.070

[30] Vetter J, Novák P, Wagner MR, Veit C, Möller KC, Besenhard JO, Winter M, Wohlfahrt-Mehrens M, Vogler C, Hammouche A. Ageing mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 2005;147(1-2):269-281. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.01.006

[31] Wang Q, Mao B, Stoliarov SI, Sun J. A review of lithium ion battery failure mechanisms and fire prevention strategies. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science. 2019;73:95-131. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2019.03.002

[32] Sun P, Bisschop R, Niu H, Huang X. A Review of Battery Fires in Electric Vehicles. Fire Technology. 2020;56(4):1361-1410. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-019-00944-3

[33] Rao Z, Wang S. A review of power battery thermal energy management. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2011;15(9):4554-4571. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.096

[34] Ji Y, Wang CY. Heating strategies for Li-ion batteries operated from subzero temperatures. Electrochimica Acta. 2013;107:664-674. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2013.03.147

[35] Choudhary A, Fatima S, Panigrahi BK. State-of-the-Art Technologies in Fault Diagnosis of Electric Vehicles: A Component-Based Review. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification. 2022;9(2):2324-47. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/TTE.2022.3209166

[36] Yang F, Song X, Xu F, Tsui KL. State-of-Charge Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries via Long Short-Term Memory Network. IEEE Access. 2019;7:53792-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2912803

[37] Wilke S, Schweitzer B, Khateeb S, Al-Hallaj S. Preventing thermal runaway propagation in lithium ion battery packs using a phase change composite material: An experimental study. Journal of Power Sources. 2017;340:51-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.11.018

[38] Bandhauer TM, Garimella S, Fuller TF. A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion Batteries. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 2011;158(3). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1149/1.3515880

[39] Wang R, Zhou X, Wang Y, Xiao Y, Shi Z, Liu Y, Zhang T. Degradation analysis of lithium-ion batteries under ultrahigh-rate discharge profile. Applied Energy. 2024;376:124241. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.124241

[40] Spotnitz R, Franklin J. Abuse behavior of high-power lithium-ion cells. Journal of Power Sources. 2003;113(1):81-100. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00488-3

[41] Peterson SB, Apt J, Whitacre JF. Lithium-ion battery cell degradation resulting from realistic vehicle and vehicle-to-grid utilization. Journal of Power Sources. 2010;195(8):2385-2392. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.10.010

[42] Zhang Y, Wang CY, Tang X. Cycling degradation mechanisms of an automotive LiFePO4 lithium-ion battery. Journal of Power Sources. 2011;196(3):1513-1520. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.08.070

[43] Chen Z, Yildizbasi A, Wang Y, Sarkis J. Safety Concerns for the Management of End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries. Global Challenges. 2022;6(12):2200049. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.202200049

[44] Liu J, Bao Z, Cui Y, Dufek EJ, Goodenough JB, Khalifah P, et al. Pathways for practical high-energy long-cycling lithium metal batteries. Nature Energy. 2019;4(3):180-186. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-019-0338-x

[45] Ding Y, Cano ZP, Yu A, Lu J, Chen Z. Automotive Li-Ion Batteries: Current Status and Future Perspectives. Electrochemical Energy Reviews. 2019;2(1):1-28. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-018-0022-z

[46] Chen M, Rincon-Mora GA. Accurate electrical battery model capable of predicting runtime and I-V performance. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 2006;21(2):504-511. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/TEC.2006.874229

[47] Tahir MW, Merten C. Multi-scale thermal modeling, experimental validation, and thermal characterization of a high-power lithium-ion cell for automobile application. Energy Conversion and Management. 2022;258:115490. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.115490

[48] Canilang HM, Caliwag AC, Lim W. Design, Implementation, and Deployment of Modular Battery Management System for IIoT-Based Applications. IEEE Access. 2022;10:109008-28. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3214177

[49] Zhou L, Lai X, Li B, Yao Y, Yuan M, Weng J, Zheng Y. State Estimation Models of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Battery Management System: Status, Challenges, and Future Trends. Batteries. 2023;9(2):131. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9020131

[50] Huang X, Kim HS. Advancing battery prognostics and health management: Challenges and future perspectives. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology. 2026:1-1. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-026-0365-z

[51] Thirumurugan A, Govindaraj R, Dhanabalan S, Sakthivel P, Chidhambaram N, Udayabhaskar R, Kamaraj SK, Abarzúa CV, Nazer JC, Morel MJ. Strategic analysis of lithium resources by addressing challenges and opportunities for sustainable electric vehicle battery development in the era of global EV domination. Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. 2025;239(4):457-65. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1515/zpch-2023-0524

[52] NERKAR M, GOYAL GR, MUKHERJEE A, SONI BP. Enhancing battery safety and performance through advanced cooling solutions for electric vehicles. Sigma Journal of Engineering & Natural Sciences. 2025;43(6). Available from: https://doi.org/10.14744/sigma.2025.1936

[53] Pande AS, Sharma AK, Soni BP. Deep learning based state of charge estimation of lithium ion battery for electric vehicle application. Discover Internet of Things. 2025;5(1):150. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43926-025-00148-y

[54] Pothireddy SR. Cloud-Native AI-Driven Enterprise Automation for Scalable Digital Process Transformation in Multi-Industry Ecosystems. Journal of Applied Sciences and Modelling. 2025:60-74. Available from: https://doi.org/10.71426/jasm.v1.i1.pp60-74

[55] Pothuraju R, Morampudi M, Tejavathu R, Nannam HC, Bhukya NR, Muppidi AB. Emerging Trends in Battery Management Systems for Electric Vehicle Applications. Battery Electric Vehicles, E-Fuel Powered Hybrids and Fuel Cell Powertrains. 2025. p. 187-214. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-6624-9_5

[56] Arandhakar S, Nakka J, Krishna VB. A comprehensive analysis and future prospects on battery energy storage systems for electric vehicle applications. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. 2024;46(1):13004-31. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2024.2401118

Downloads

Published

2026-06-10

Issue

Vol. 3 No. 01 (2026): 2026: Volume-3 | Issue-1 (January to June)

Section

Review Article

License

Copyright (c) 2026 Sai Balaji Kamana, Kenneth E. Okedu, Bhanu Pratap Soni, Hari Charan Nannam, Chalapaka Veerendra Bharghav Kumar (Author)

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

Journal of Modern Technology (JMT) Journal operates under the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). This allows others distribute, remix, tweak, and build upon the work, even commercially, as long as they credit the authors for the original creation. All authors publishing in JMT Journal accept these as the terms of publication.

How to Cite

[1]
S. B. Kamana, Kenneth E. Okedu, Bhanu Pratap Soni, Hari Charan Nannam, and Chalapaka Veerendra Bharghav Kumar, “Thermal Safety, Cooling Technologies, and Predictive Control for Electro-Thermal Management and Intelligent Battery Management Systems in Electric Vehicles”, Journal of Modern Technology, vol. 3, no. 01, pp. 406–419, Jun. 2026, doi: 10.71426/jmt.v3.i1.pp406-419.